LIST OF IMPORTANT BOOKS AND WRITERS (ANCIENT INDIA)

1. Ashtadhyayi - Panini
2. Ramayana - Valmiki
3. Mahabharata - Vedavas
4. Ashtashastrika Sutra, Pragyayaparamita Sutrachha, Media Sutra - Nagarjuna
5. Buddhist, Sariputra episode, Sutraalaankar vajrasachi, Sudarshananand, Shradhupad - Ashwaghosh
6. Protarakshas, Devichandragupta - Visakhadatta
7. Economics - chanakya
8. Mahatbhasha - Patanjali
9. Kumarasambham, AbhiyanShakuntalam, VikramMarashyamam, Meghdootam, Raghuvansham, Malavikagnamitram, Ritusaharaharam - Kalidas
10. Swapnavasavadam, Pradigyagoghradarayan - Bhas
11. Naganand, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika - Harshavardhan
12. Harshacharit, novel - Banabhatta
13. Vikramank Charit - Bilhan
14. Prithviraj Raso - Chandrabardai
15. Rajatarangini - Kalhana
16. Chairpanchakshika - Bilhan
17. Rasmala, Kirti Kaamudi - Someshv
18. Kapuramanjari - Rajasekhar
19. Indica - Magnificent
20. Charak Sanghita - Charak
21. Sushruta Samhita - Sushruta
22. Mruchkatikam - Shudrak
23. Sangeetharatnak - Shangadev
24. Meitakshara - Vigneshwar
25. Rent-rate-weight
26. Panchatantra - Vishnu Sharma
27. Justice commentary, Kamasutra - Vatsyaayan
28. Kadhipar, Dashmukumarita - Dandy
29. Vasavadatta - Subhadhu
30. Sun theory - Aryabhatta
31. Great Code, Panch Siddhantika, Brihawas, Smallborn - Varahamihir
32. Geetgovindam - Jayadev
33. Angharaghava - Murarai
34. Ayurveda Sarvas, Rajmartand, Behavior Aggregates, Vocabulary, Yuktikapatra, Rajamragika - Raja Bhoj
35. Banquet-ballall
36. Sisupala slaughter - Magh
37. Nishadhyacharyam - Sridhash
38. Malti Madhav, Mahavir Charit, Uttaram Ramitrata - Bhavabhuti
39. Literature: - Bhamah
40. Soundtrack: Pramodachandra - Anandvardhan
41. Personal discretion: - Mahamabhatta
42. Caption - Mmt
43. Venisamhara - Bhatt Narayan
44. Proof Metrics - Hemchandra
45. Big cage - center
46. Constants (grammar) - universal
47. Ashtanga Kangra, Principle Shiromani, Lailavati (first book of algebra) - Bhaskaracharya
48. Madhav diagnosis - Madhavkar
49. Nigantu - Yaskee
50. Rasaratnakar - Nagarjuna
51. Principle Kaumudi, Principle Shardi, Judiciary, Naytasutra Section, Nyayankanika, Yogasarasaras - Vyaspati Mishra
52. Yogavarta, Yogasaragam - Science Bhikshu
53. Tilkamjari, Yashashtikil - Dhanpal
54. Kuttaniamtham-Damodar Gupta
55. Elementism - Udayan
56. Jurisprudence Yogarushasya - Nathmini
57. Songsandra, Mahaprusha Decision, Siddharthy, Agam Pramanya - Yamunacharya
58. Sagittarius, Samaraditya Katha - Haribhadra
59. Qualayamala - Udasanasuri
60. Ajit Shantistaw - Nandisan
61. Satusai - Hall

Today we will try to differentiate between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic period culture.

Differences between Indus Civilization and Rigvedic Civilization

1. Rigvedic civilization seems to be rural culture, whereas the people of Indus Civilization were well-informed in the well-planned civil life.
2. Aryans were conversant in gold and silver in metals and their area unit definite references to the employment of iron in Yajurveda. People of Indus civilization used gold and silver, but they used to use silver more than gold. They knew the manufacture of various instruments and instruments of copper and bronze, but they were not familiar with iron.
3. The horse was of great importance in the life of Rigvedic Aryans. But there is no definitive evidence that people of Indus Civilization were familiar with Ashwa.
4. There is no mention of the tiger in Vedas and very few mentions of the elephant is found. But there is a considerable amount of marking on both the tiger and the elephant on the postures of the Indus Civilization.
5. Arya used to manufacture various weapons and weapons. They knew to make armor in defense measures while digging any site of the Indus Civilization, there was no definitive defense material available yet.
6. Arya gave special respect to the cow. But in the Indus Civilization, postures and other works of art seem to be that the cow's special significance was not, the bull was more important than a cow.
7. Arya was probably not pagan. On the opposite hand, individuals of Indus civilization were pagan.
8. Female idols from the places of Indus Civilization seem to be accessible within the range of Gods that it seems that Mother deity had a very important place within the gods of Indus Civilization. Male deities in Aryans have been more important. The importance of ladies is relatively low.
9. Marshal didn't realize the prevalence of yagyakandha in Mohanjodad and not obtaining the residue of fire-related residues in Harappa. While the yajnas are vital within the nonsecular lifetime of Aryans.
10. It is evident from the postures and alternative instruments of the Indus Civilization that individuals were ready to write, but some scholars have a belief about the Aryans that they did not acumen to put in writing, however, some students have a belief regarding the Aryans that they didn't acumen to put in writing and study- Teaching accustomed be oral.
11. The Rig religious text mentions the fortresses of Asuras and that we recognize that each one the foremost cities of Indus Civilization were within the fort.
12. The unrealities have also been called flat noses. Flattened nostrils are seen in a number of the idols of the Harappan culture. The nerves of the Aryans were intense.

Today we will read about the Chola empire. Know how the rise and fall of this lineage was, who was the king of this dynasty? This post will be updated further in which we will also learn about Chola's government, the justice system, the means of income-expenditure, art and culture. Let's know all the details of Chola Empire.

Role: Chola Dynasty

The history of the Chola dynasty is ancient. The rulers of this lineage considered themselves as the children of the oldest and the original inhabitants of India. Description of Mahabharata, Megasthenes, Ashoka's records, and many ancient Buddhist and Greek books provide descriptions of the Cholas. The beginning of the powerful empire of this lineage is considered from the nineteenth century and gradually the majority of southern India came under it.

They also got control over Sri Lanka and the Maldives. They had a huge and powerful navy. They succeed in making their impact in South-East Asia. The Chola empire was undoubtedly the most powerful empire of South India. During the years of the first (second century to the eighth century) phase of this empire, when it was an effective empire, the foreign trade of Deccan India was very rich because in the details of foreign travelers and scholars such as Peripus and Trolli, the Chol State ports Get mentioned.

After this Sangam literature mentions many Chola kings, in which Karikal was most famous. His rule probably started around 190 A.D. After some time of Karikal, a famous king named Perunarakili, who also did Rajsutra Yajna in the celebration of his victories. After that, the power of the ancient Chola kingdom was loosened. Most of his state was probably won by Pallavas .

Hueansang

Chinese Hwansong, who came to Seventh Century, visited the country and went to Chol State too. He writes -

"Chola state is spread over 2400 or 2500 lie and its capital is 10a. The country is desolate and in most part, there are marshes and forests. The population is very low and the Dalku robbery is very much. "

Because Hansang did not mention the name of any Chola state in his description, most of the history concludes that the Chola state was not important at that time and it was probably under the rule of the Pallavas. After the power of the Pallavas was destroyed, the Chola state progressed again.

Uplift of the Chola empire

The Chola empire was re-established by Vijaypal (850-871 AD), which was initially a feudal chieftain of the Pallavas. In 850 CE, Thanjavur was in his possession and attacked the Pandya kingdom. Vijaypal died in 871 AD. After that, his son Aditya I became king (871-907 AD). He extended the power and dignity of his offspring.

During the same reign, till 897 AD, Chola became so powerful that he defeated the Pallava ruler and murdered him and took possession of the entire area. After the death of Aditya I, Parantak first (907-955 AD) became king. In the beginning, he could also maintain the influence of the Cholas.

Wins his Pandya kingdom and holds the title of "Madurai Konda" which means "the winner of Madurai". But when he had to take iron from Rashtrakutas, the Chola empire also suffered loss. Rashtrakut ruler Krishna III defeated him (Parantak first) in 949 AD and the Chola empire occupied northern region. This led to a huge shock to the Chola dynasty.

But after the death of Krishna III in 965 AD, when the Rashtrakutas began to collapse, the Chola empire once again started moving towards the path of progress.

Today we will read about Chandragupta II i.e. Vikramaditya (AD 375-415). The family of Vikramaditya will read about the status of the empire at the time of his throne, his marital life, the conquest of victory, the consequence of doubt victory, governance management, coins, religious status, social status, governance etc.

Name and family

Chandragupta II has been called by different names in his records. In the records of Saanchi, Devraj, Wakataka King Praversen II, Devgupta and some of his coins have been called Devshri. He had two daughters - Dhruv devi whose sons were Kumar Gupta and Govind Gupta and Kuberanaga whose daughter was Imtathi Gupta, who was married to Wakatak Raja Rudrasen II.

From Mathura, Bhitri Column and Aryan records, we know that his father Samudragupta had chosen Chandragupta Vikramaditya as the most deserving son of his many sons during his lifetime.

State of the Empire at the Time of A Sitting on the Throne

Samudragupta had established peace and order in his lifetime by establishing political unity in India, but the Western Satraps were still powerful. They also had a disturbance in the economic development of the empire, because all trade was done from overseas by the western seaboard.

Importance of marital relations

At this time two princes were powerful - Nagavansh and Vakataka. Due to the marriage of Vikramaditya from the Princess Kuberanaga of Nagavansha, this line was in favor of him. Chandragupta Vikramaditya increased his power by marrying his daughter, Imtasty, by Wakataka Raja Rudrasen II. The situation of the vakattas was such that their friendship could be a boon for the Gupta Empire and their enmity would be great trouble for him. With this marriage, Chandragupta had a great deal of doubt victory.

Doubt Victory

The most important event of the reign of Chandragupta II was victory over the suspicions of Western Malva and the Sudarashtra. Samudragupta had won the eastern Malwa in his reign. From there Vikramaditya prepared to attack the doubts. In the Udayagiri Vistas Record, it has been written that Chandragupta came there with his own foreign and war-minister Veersen Shaab. From the records of Udaygiri, it is known that in the Udaygiri there were the Sankanic Valiant Gupta Samanta. This victory also helped in the marriage of Wakatak kings. This victory probably happened between 388 AD and 409 AD because the coins received after 388 AD were not found and the coins of Chandragupta II, which were found around 409 AD, were written in Greek script and date is.

Results of doubt victory

Due to this victory the Gupta-empire extended from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. The prosperity of the Gupta Empire increased due to the conquest of West by trade from the West. This part of India, on which foreigners were doing, was freed from them. The exchange of ideas from the Western countries started at a faster pace. Ujjayini was the center of a business, now also became prominent in religious and cultural events and became the second capital of the empire.

Other victories

There is an iron pillar near the Qutub Minar near Mehrauli near Delhi. This is the praise of a king named "Chandra". It has written that Chandra defeated the Union of his enemies in Bengal. The South Sea flavored with its viral and crossed the seven heads of the Indus and defeated the Flyers. Thus, by establishing the monarchy on earth, he ruled for a long time. Most scholars now believe that this is Chandra Chandra Gupta II. If this is correct, then Chandragupta Vikramaditya got his full authority on Bengal and defeated the foreign kings of the best West.

The government of Chandragupta Vikramaditya

Chandragupta was not only a skilled warrior but he was also a worthy ruler. Its governance will be described with a secret governance. Fahian also praised the rule of Chandragupta.

In his inscriptions, we have known the names of the five main officers -

• Sunakanik-Udayagiri records mention this Samanta of Chandragupta.
• Amarkavadav - the commander of Vikramaditya in Sanchi. He was a follower of Buddhism.
• Veersen Shab - Foreign and War Ministers She was Shaiv.
• Shikhar Swami - was minister and Kumarmauti.
• Maharaja Shri Govind Gupta - Rajkumar Govind Gupta was the governor of Tirabhuti (Tirhat).

Coins

Chandragupta used five types of coins. The coins on bow are on the one side of the eagle and on the other side is the shape of Lakshmi. On the one hand, on the coins of a lion, lions are slaughtered by the king and on the other is the shape of Singhwahini Durga. In this, the lion is possibly an indicator of Chandragupta's superlative victory. In addition, he also used coins, umbrella and horsebacked coins. The coins of Chandragupta II are similar to the coins of coins.

Fahian's description

In the time of Chandragupta II, a Chinese pilgrim named Fahian traveled to Buddhist shrines and came to India to collect Buddhist scriptures. He has written that 4,000 Heeenyan Buddhists lived in some cities such as Shaan-Shan and Kara There were more than ten thousand Mahayana Buddhists in the city called Khotan. Kashgar was also the center of the Hinayana Buddhists. There were 3,000 Heeenan and Mahayana Buddhists in Afghanistan.

Religious state of India

Within India, Fahian saw that there were many monasteries in Punjab, where there were about 10,000 monks. There were 20 monasteries in Mathura where 3,000 monks lived. There was more publicity of Brahmin religion in the middle of the country. There were people of philanthropic tendencies. The King, the rich and ordinary people, all build temples and donate land and houses. Some donors used to donate the garden too. Bulls were also used in donations that were used for farming. Gennadras were written.

The king who followed the rules of those donations also used to follow. For traveling monks, rooms were arranged for bed, food, and clothing. To honor the ancient monks like Sariputta, Moggalan, Anand, and to make Abhidhamma, Vinay and Sutta Pitta, people used to make monastery and many of them used to collect money to arrange for clothes etc. for the monks. Fahian has written that at that time other than Buddhist people, they used to make pious schools in which arrangements for lodging, bedding, food and drinks for travelers and monks were kept.

This was the arrangement for the stay of the people of all castes and religions. There were two monasteries in Pataliputra. In the monastery of the Mahayana sect, a famous Brahmin was reverted, which was the archaeologist of Buddhism.

Social Status

Fahian has written that in Madhya Pradesh no person kills any organism. The residents did not even drink alcohol. Garlic and onions were also not used. Chandal lived outside the city. People in this country did not keep pigs and hens. Neither did any animal sell, nor was there a butcher's shop, nor did the shops of liquor shops in the markets. Humans used to use cowards in business.

He has written that people in Magadha are prosperous. They compete with each other to charity and fulfill their duty towards their neighbors. Rich people have set up free hospitals in the cities. They include poor and poor patients, orphans, widow, and lame-loonies. Doctors do their treatment. Food and medicine are provided as per their requirement. Their comfort is taken care of.

Fahian has also described a ratha yatra in which man used to procure five-wheeled chariots of four wheels. On this occasion, the Brahmins used to call the Buddhists also

Administration

Fahian has written that in the middle of the country, humans do not have to register their names. There is no management on them. They can go and live wherever they are. The government takes great care of the interest of the people. Farmers have to give one portion of their produce to the king. Corporal punishment is not given. Most offenses are only fined for crimes. The king's soldiers were given a fixed salary for the soldiers.

The harappan script has not been read yet. Therefore, only on the basis of archaeological remains is the knowledge of the characteristics of the Harappan civilization. In the absence of written evidence, it is also difficult to get accurate conclusions from the residue. Therefore, all our estimates regarding Harappa civilization become a matter of controversy.

Naming Of Harappan civilization

From the earliest excavations, the Harappan civilization was found only in the Indus river valley area, from which the civilization was named after the "Indus Valley Civilization". But later, when other ancient sites of this civilization were discovered in other geographical areas from the Indus river valley, its old name became irrelevant. In order to solve this problem, the scholars followed the naming convention used in the archaeological literature named "Harappa Civilization" in the name of Harappa, its first excavated place, in the name of this civilization.

For the periodic determination of Harappan civilization, assistance has been taken to record evidence of Harappan civilization with contemporary civilizations, such as seal, merchandise and contemporary civilizations. In addition to these, pure scientific methods of determining the absolute time-determination - carbon dating method 14, dendrology, exploration methods of pervasive science have also been used. Most historians believe that the Harappan civilization dates from 3300 BC 1700 BC Till one of the world's ancient river valley civilizations is a major civilization.

Sandhav society

The Harappan civilization was a civilized civilization developed in the Indus River valley, based on the acquisition of profuse agricultural redundancy. Sandhav was stratified on the basis of society, a division of labor, specialization. There is a clear impression of the presence of diverse groups in this society. In this society, farmers, traders, workers, masons, priests, transporter, security personnel, architect, Aquarius, Takshak, metallurgist, fisherman, cleaning workers, weavers, painters, sculptors, builders of sailors, sailors, ruler class, There were many classes like archivists, dancers, servants and creators of bricks.

Thus, it was a complex society in which the complexity of relations can be easily estimated. Even after this, it seems that there is a sense of cooperation, harmony, coexistence, and tolerance among all sections of society. Entrepreneurship This society has undoubtedly been a special quality, due to which the urban society was certainly rich on the basis of today's criteria in the present age.

Worship

The people of Harappa were worshipers of nature and motherly power. Its appearance is due to the practice of worship of animal husband, the mother goddess, Taurus, snake, reproductive powers, water, trees, animals, birds, and whites. Kalibanga and Lothal indicate animal sacrifice and sacrifice. In that society, the special role of the priest class is proved.

The society of Harappan civilization believed in rituals and rituals. People of Harappan civilization worshiped many fictional mixed animals and humans. Pashupati seal indicates the importance of sannyasism or samadhi or yoga. Goddesses were depicted on many seals and mudbhands. These facts give clear evidence of piety or devotion.

Frustrated society

People living in the Harappan civilization also imagined the afterlife/rebirth. This is the reason that in the Samadhi along with the deceased, daily life / his beloved objects were brought to Samadhi. The Harappans used to imagine some harmful invisible persons, such as ghosts, demons, demons. The most important fact is that the way the Harappan civilization was in full swing for many centuries, its fundamental cause was probably the true truth of high religious tolerance. Thus, if the Harappan society was able to make its all-round development even after many variations, then the reason for this society would have been to be free of prejudice or frustration. Absolute was a key feature of this society. Harappa Samaj is a unique example of diversity in diversity and diversity in unity.

Peace loving

In the Harappan civilization, people of all sections were also well-off and were also peaceful and highly disciplined. That is why they built their buildings on the basis of the building-map accepted by city administrators. Here the invasive weapons are not available and there is no evidence of the prisoner. This proves that they were confident of their safety. They neither had the fear of aggression nor were they, imperialists.

The people living in the Harappan civilization had a specific lifestyle. They were always entrepreneurs for the achievement of physical pleasures. This is the reason why he introduced the best clothes - jewelry, beauty. Sindhuvisans created many toys for the entertainment of the new generation and invented games like Chawpad and chess in the four-day game.

Scientific mentality

These people also had a specialty "scientific mindset" that reflected their entrepreneurship. His special interest in mathematics, science, hydrology, ocean science, chemistry, physics, botany, and biology was aimed at - refining the lifestyle. They built the best beads. It is not believed that about 300 subtle beads could be counted in a village load. What was their manufacturing technique? The material that was to be constructed around a highly thin thread was made to be pasted.

The way they built wooden pots for protecting seals in their food grains, made proper arrangement of air and light transmission, it is a symbol of their scientific mentality.

Just as he built a Goddwara at the site of Lothal, it seems that before the selection of this place, for many decades, the relation between the constellations of the constellations of the constellations, the behavior of the ocean by coming into special conditions of the Sun, Earth and Moon But the effect of which comes in the form of tidal bellows, they have knowledge. Knowledge of elevation of sea water level and its coastal contact and the lowest level of water level was very important for the construction of the dock and the movement of the ships.

Based on the mid ratio of the bets, it can be said that they had knowledge of the decimal system.

Geographical Coverage

Harappa1 Harappa was surveyed by Mason in 1826. Thereafter, antiquities were obtained in 1853 and 1873 here. Again in 1912, J.F. Fleet published an article on the antiquities derived from the Royal Asiatic Society. But in 1921, the excavation done by Dayaram Sahni was finally identified as the representative site of a particular civilization of this archive. So far, from north of Jammu, from south of Manada, to the south of Maharashtra, from Sukkagendor in Balochistan to the east, Alamgirpur in Ganga-Yamuna Doab, 12,996,00 sq. Kms in the east, etc. More than 2000 places of archaeological finds have been discovered in the triangular area. Two-thirds of these sites have been found in the Indian territory.

Thus, this civilization was broad in the larger area than its contemporary Mesopotamia and the sum total of the expansion area of Egyptian civilizations. Located in Punjab, Sindhu, Balochistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat, West-Uttar Pradesh, and North Eastern Maharashtra in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent, this civilization was spread over a diverse geographical area.

Today, we are going to tell you the list of travelers coming from abroad in the ancient, medieval and modern times of India. These foreign travelers have a very important place in Indian history. Many of these books book books refresh the invaluable history of India. From their books, we get to know what was the economic and social status of India at the time. Let us know about India in foreign tourists who came to India.

LIST OF FOREIGN TRAVELERS WHO CAME IN INDIA

Magathnese

Indica is a book written by Megasthenes, the most important source of Mauryan history. Magathnese was Greek, whom Greek ruler Seleucus made as his messenger and sent it to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He is 302 B.C. From 298 B.C. Till the capital of Maurya Empire was in Pataliputra.

Unfortunately his original text has been destroyed, but the quotation given by later Greek travelers - Strabo, Pliny, Arian etc. gives information about the details of the magestion. Shanbach has translated the details given by him and translated it into English.

Dimacus

It was sent by the ruler of Syria, Antiochus I, as an envoy to Bindusar's court. In Strabo's articles, we get the details given by the dimensions. According to his description, Bindus had asked the Syrian king to send figs, sweet wine and Greek philosophers to the Mauryan Darbar. The Syrian monarch sent sweet liquors and figs, but expressed the inability to send Greek philosophers.

Dionysius

It was the ambassador of Egyptian King Toulami Philadelphus, who had come to the court of Maurya Emperor Bindusara. Similar to Dimémus, Strabo, etc., in the descriptions of later Greek writers, cited quotes on its then social and economic conditions.

Phahyan

A Chinese Buddhist passenger named Fahien came to India in the time of Chandragupta II. Its main purpose was to study and persuade Buddhist texts. Due to religious tendencies, it has given special light on the state of India's religious status, especially Buddhism. Even in his account he does not even mention the name of the Indian emperor. The social system of that time gets a special description by it.

Hueansang

This Buddhist Chinese traveler came to India during the reign of Emperor Harshavardhana. It remained in India for fourteen (629-43 AD) years. He has circulated almost entire India. He stayed for some years in the court of King Harshavardhana (Kannauj). He wrote his experiences in a book called "Si-You-Ke".

Details of Hwen Ts'ang are more factual than the historical perspective. According to Hwansang - Emperor Shiladitya (Harsh) used to spend 3/4 of his state on religious activities, Sati was the practice of practice, punishment was strict, people were honest and did not consume meat, onions and alcohol, caste The practice was harsh. Hueansang is called the Prince of Pilgrims.

Icings

I-tsing Chinese (671-95 AD) was a Buddhist traveler. It has described contemporary India in the biographies of the main Buddhist monks of their furrows.

Alburini

In the 11th century Mehmood Gajnavi's chief court came to India with him. In his treatise "Tahakik-i-Hind", he gave his detailed explanation regarding India. According to Alberuni Indian society was divided into 16 races. In his book Brahmins are described as the privilege, the decline of the Vaishya caste, the child marriage, the practice of sati and widow marriage.

Marco Polo

Marco Polo was an Italian traveller, which came out in 13th century for the purpose of world tour and came to the Karal port of India's Pandya state in 1292 AD. At that time the Pandya ruler Rudrama Devi was ruling. He wrote his travelogue in a book titled "The Travels", which describes the amazing economic prosperity of South states, foreign trade and commerce. It traveled to India in 1292-93 AD. Its another book, Sir Marcopolo's book, describes the economic history of India.

Chou Ju Quua

It was the Chinese trader (1225-54E) who described India as a business in the book Chu-Phan-Chi.

Niccolo Conti

Niccolò de 'Conti was the first foreign traveler to visit Vijayanagar. Nicolò Canti was a resident of Italy who traveled to the Vijayanagar empire. He reached in 1420-21 AD during the reign of King Devrai I of Vijayanagara. He wrote his travel details in Latin. The original details have been lost. He has given important information about the Vijayanagara empire. It has described the cities, the rulers, the festivals, festivals.

Abdurarjajak

It was Ambassador of Persia and came in the court of King Devraj II of Vijayanagara in 1442-43 AD. In his description, he has given a good description of the business, industries, ports, agriculture, living and customs of the residents, treasures etc. of the Vijayanagar state. He has written, "There are many basements in the king's palace and in them the gold is filled in such a way that it stacks." Regarding Vijayanagara, he wrote that "I have not seen another city like this in the whole world."

Barbosa

Portuguese traveler Duart Barbosa () came during the journey of Vijayanagara during the time of Krishna Deva Raya (1510-1526).

Buddhist and Jain religious texts show that the 6th century BC India was divided into many small states. At that time, there was the existence of sixteen Mahajanapada (the Sixteen Mahajanapada) which means big states in northern India.

These states were called big states because their size was larger than the Vedic age tribal states. Mahajanapadas (or state of state) became the place of tribal states because warrior and agriculturists could achieve more success in their respective areas due to the use of iron. The brief description of their units, indicating the major states' capitals, has been given below.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas and their capital

Anga

This Mahajanapadha was located in the east of Magadha State. Its capital was Champa. The area of modern Bhagalpur and Munger was included in this district. In the time of Gautam Buddha, this state continued to struggle with Magadha. Probably in the beginning, the organ had defeated Magadha for some time and included itself.

But soon the power of this district became weak and the ruler, Bimbisar, not only made Magadha separate from the organ, but also subjected the organ to its own. In time, the state became part of the kingdom of Magadha.

Magadh

In Buddhist literature, detailed information about the capital of this state (Girivraj or Rajgir) and residents is received. The areas of present-day Patna and Gaya districts were its limbs. This state is also mentioned in Atharvaveda.

Kashi

Its capital was Varanasi (Banaras). Kashi's Kausal, Magadha and limbs did not have good relations with the states and they often had to remain struggling. During the time of Gautama Buddha Kashi became the political fall of the state

Vargy

This Mahajanapadas was situated in the north of Magadha. This union was made of eight clans and four of them (Videha, Jataka, Vajji and Lichchavi) were more prominent. The huge was the capital of this union.

Kosala

The boundaries of these districts were in the east, the river Sadanir (Gandak), in the west, Panchal, Sarpika or Syndika river (Sai river) in the south and Nepal in the north was the underwater. Saryu river divides it (Kotal district) into two parts. A North Kosala whose capital was Shravasti and the other was Southern Kosala, whose capital was Kushavati.

Mall

This district was a hill state situated in the north of Vajji Union. It had two parts, one of which was capital of Kushinagar (where Mahatma Buddha received Nirvana) and the second part was Pava (where Vardhaman Mahavir got Nirvana).

Chadhi

This Mahajanapada was situated on the banks of river Yamuna. It was spread in the eastern part of modern Bundelkhand and its adjacent plots. According to the Mahabharata, "Shuktmati" was its capital, but according to "Chetiyyatak" the "Sathvivithi" was its capital. According to Mahabharata, Shishu Pulak was the ruler of this place.

Vatsya

In the western part of Kashi this district was located in the vicinity of Prayag. Kaushambi was its capital. In the time of Buddha, its ruler was Udayan.

Kuru

In North Vedic literature, there are adequate details of this district. Its area was in Thaneswar (in the state of Haryana), Delhi and Meerut. Its capital was Indraprastha (Hastinapur).

Panchal

This district was famous only in the North Vedic period. There were presently Rubelkand and some districts adjacent to it. There were two parts - Northern Panchal and Southern Panchal. The capital of the Northern Panchal was Ahikshitra and the capital of the Southern Panchal was Kampili. Basically this district was a monarchy, but possibly in the era of Kautilya, there was a Republican rule.

Matsya

In this district, Jaipur and Alwar districts of the modern Rajasthan state were included. The city of Virat was probably its capital. Probably this district was once under the state of Cheyedi.

Shoresen

Mathura and the surrounding areas were included in this district. The modern Mathura town was its capital. Buddhist texts get mention of the state of Ayuntiputra Shurasen. He was a follower and patron of Buddhism.

Ask or asmak

This state was situated on the banks of river Godavari. Patan or Potan was its capital. According to the Puranas, the ruler of this Mahajanapadas belonged to Ikshvaku dynasty. In the Jataka tales, the names of many kings of this district are also known.

Avanti

Avanti Rajputas were almost Ujjain districts and surrounding areas. According to the Puranas, the commander of Punik, killed a ruler named Yaduvanshi Vitihotra and placed his son Pradyoth on the throne of Avanti. Nandvardhan, the last ruler of Magadha, defeated the ruler of Magadha, Shishunag and made it a part of his empire. This Mahajanapada was divided into two parts. Ujjaini, the capital of the northern part and the capital of the southern part was Bhishmathiya.

Kamboj

This state was in the neighborhood of Gandhara. Some parts of Kashmir such as Rajori and Thousand districts were included in it. Probably Rajpur or Hattak was its capital.

Gandhara

In this district the present Peshawar, Rawalpindi and part of Kashmir were also included. Taxila was its capital. King of Gandhara Punkusati was contemporary of Gautama Buddha and Bimbisar. He fought several battles with the Avanti king Pradyoth and defeated him. Its capital was the center of lore. Students from abroad and abroad came here to get education